Studio portrait of three Parsees and a Parbhu, Bombay

Portrait of three Parsees and a Parbhu, taken by Hurrichund Chintamon, c. 1867. This photograph was commissioned by the Government of India for the Archaelogical Survey of India and was on show in the Paris Exhibition of 1867.

The group in this view are seated around a small table on which are placed books and writing implements, emphasising their intellectual interests and attainments. The Parsees, or Parsis, are descendants of Persians who fled to India in the seventh and eighth centuries to escape Muslim persecution. The Parsees practice Zorastrianism and their communities are concentrated in Maharashtra and Gujarat states, especially in Bombay. The Parsis are often described as fire-worshippers but they do not worship fire, instead they revere many aspects of nature as manifestations of the divinity of Ahura Mazdah. The Parbhu (Prabhu) is the man second from the right. The Prabhus were one of the oldest Mumbai communities, originally from Gujarat (north-west India) and the neighbouring areas. Most are Shaivas but some also worship Rama and Krishna. The common occupation of Prabhus was that of a clerk but some attained important posts in Government.

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Class with mistress in vernacular girls' school, Bombay, Maharashtra

Photograph of a class in the vernacular girls' school at Bombay in Maharashtra from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections: India Office Series (Volume 46), taken by an unknown photographer in c.1873. This image, showing the class grouped on benches around the teacher, was exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition of 1873 and is mentioned in John Forbes Watson's catalogue for the Indian Department. Female education in India grew dramatically in the latter part of the nineteenth century and vernacular education (in the local language) was considered a special obligation for the Government from 1854 when it was declared a concern by the Court of Directors. The vernacular course covered both primary and secondary education and was carried out in many different types of establishment depending on the resources of the area. In Bombay, for example, the complete course of vernacular education was delivered at primary school. The Imperial Gazetteer of India states, "The type of primary school varies from the primitive pathshala or maktab to the modern institutions in which the pupils are educated in accordance with approved European methods. The Bombay local rates schools are in general better built, equipped, and managed than the Bengal indigenous institutions."

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Group of mistress and pupils of the Government Normal School, Bombay

Photograph of a group posed in front of the Government Normal School at Bombay, in Maharashtra from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections: India Office Series (Volume 46), taken by an unknown photographer in c. 1873. This image, which was probably shown at the Vienna Exhibition of 1873, shows the European mistress seated in the centre of a group of ten female pupils. Normal schools trained teachers and The Imperial Gazetteer of India states, "In the case of primary teachers and the lower masters of secondary schools the courses of study and the examinations are organized by the Local Governments, and central and District schools are maintained for their instruction by the Government, and in some cases by local boards and missionary societies...Stipends are frequently given to the pupils, who then bind themselves to teach for a specified period. The courses include general and technical subjects and practical training." The number of female Normal schools increased greatly after 1871 in response to the growth in female primary and secondary education in India.

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Group of pupils of the Alexandra Native Girls' Institution, Bombay

Photograph of a group of pupils from the Alexandra Native Girls' Institution at Bombay in Maharashtra from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections: India Office Series (Volume 46), taken by an unknown photographer in c. 1873. This image was probably exhibited at the Vienna Universal Exhibition of the same year. Female education in India grew dramatically in the latter part of the nineteenth century. The Imperial Gazetteer of India states regarding female education, "The Government did not take up the subject until 1849, when Lord Dalhousie informed the Bengal Council of Education that henceforth its functions were to embrace female education, and the first girls' school recognized by Government was founded shortly afterwards by a committee of native gentlemen. The despatch of of 1854 directed that female education should receive the frank and cordial support of Government...The Education Commission of 1882 advised that female education should receive special encouragement and special liberality...The adoption of this attitude has resulted in a considerable development of the public instruction of girls, although it still lags far behind that of their brothers. In 1871 there were 134 secondary and 1,760 primary girls' schools; in 1901-2 the numbers were 461 and 5,628 respectively."

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Group of pupils of the Alexandra Native Girls' Institution, Bombay

Photograph of a group of pupils from the Alexandra Native Girls' Institution at Bombay in Maharashtra from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections: India Office Series (Volume 46), taken by an unknown photographer in c. 1873. This image was probably exhibited at the Vienna Universal Exhibition of that year. Female education in India grew dramatically in the latter part of the nineteenth century. The Imperial Gazetteer of India states regarding female education, "The Government did not take up the subject until 1849, when Lord Dalhousie informed the Bengal Council of Education that henceforth its functions were to embrace female education, and the first girls' school recognized by Government was founded shortly afterwards by a committee of native gentlemen. The despatch of of 1854 directed that female education should receive the frank and cordial support of Government...The Education Commission of 1882 advised that female education should receive special encouragement and special liberality...The adoption of this attitude has resulted in a considerable development of the public instruction of girls, although it still lags far behind that of their brothers. In 1871 there were 134 secondary and 1,760 primary girls' schools; in 1901-2 the numbers were 461 and 5,628 respectively."

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General exterior view of the Free Church of Scotland Mission Orphanage, Nagpur

Photograph of the Free Church of Scotland Mission Orphanage at Nagpur in Maharashtra from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections: India Office Series (Volume 46), taken by an unknown photographer in c. 1870. This view looks across the garden towards the orphanage buildings, with inmates and staff gathered in front of the building. Many schools and orphanages were set up by missionaries during the nineteenth century. Alexander Duff, the first Free Church of Scotland missionary appointed to India, arrived in Calcutta in 1830 and helped to promote the demand for an English education. Mission schools were important in India, particularly for the education of girls and women, for those who were at the lower end of the caste system and for technical education.

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Class with mistress in a mofussil or up-country girls' school, Bombay

Photograph of a girls' school at Bombay in Maharashtra from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections: India Office Series (Volume 46), taken by an unknown photographer in c.1873. This image of a class grouped on benches around the teacher was shown at the Vienna Exhibition of that same year. Female education in India grew dramatically in the latter part of the nineteenth century. The Imperial Gazetteer of India states regarding female education, "The Government did not take up the subject until 1849, when Lord Dalhousie informed the Bengal Council of Education that henceforth its functions were to embrace female education, and the first girls' school recognized by Government was founded shortly afterwards by a committee of native gentlemen. The despatch of of 1854 directed that female education should receive the frank and cordial support of Government...The Education Commission of 1882 advised that female education should receive special encouragement and special liberality...The adoption of this attitude has resulted in a considerable development of the public instruction of girls, although it still lags far behind that of their brothers. In 1871 there were 134 secondary and 1,760 primary girls' schools; in 1901-2 the numbers were 461 and 5,628 respectively."

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Brahmin group, Bombay

Studio portrait of six Brahmins, or priests, in Mumbai, taken by Hurrichund Chintamon in the 1860s. This photograph is from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections; one of a series of ethnographical photographs commissioned by the Government of India in the late 19th century to gather information about the people and monuments of India. Material was submitted by both professional and amateur photographers. Ethnographical prints were also produced by large photographic firms and temporary studios in India to meet European demands for souvenirs from the East and in response the rising interest in ethnography. Brahmins are the highest of the four Hindu castes.

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Studio portrait of a group of Parsee ladies, Bombay

Seven Parsee women, grouped around a table, taken by an unknown photographer in the 1860s, from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections. The Parsees were descendants of Persians who fled to India in the seventh and eighth centuries to escape Muslim persecution. They are Zoroastrian, the religious system commonly known as fire-worship. Their communities are concentrated in Maharashtra and Gujarat states, especially in Bombay.

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The Punt Pratinidhi of Satara (a Brahmin)

A portrait of the Punt Pratinidhi of Satara, seated with his servants, taken by Hurrichund Chintamon c. 1867, from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections. This photograph was exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of 1867. Punt Pratinidhi was a Brahmin, the priestly caste of the Hindus and the uppermost caste of society. Both British and Indian photographers assisted the archaeological survey. Chintamon was an Indian photographer who made a notable contribution to the book 'The People of India', published by the India Museum in 1868-75. After photography was introduced into India in the 1840s it rapidly grew in popularity, particularly as a means to record the vast diversity of people and their dress, manners, trades, customs and religions. Ethnographical prints were produced by large photographic firms operating in India as well as by smaller or temporary studios to meet European demands for souvenirs from the East. Figures, like those in this image, were often posed to display their characteristic attributes and artefacts. Chintamon set up the first photographic firm in Bombay.

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Studio portrait of a group of Muslim men, Bombay

Portrait of five men and a boy from Mumbai, taken by Hurrichund Chintamon and shown in the 1867 Paris Exhibition. This photograph is from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections; one of a series of ethnographical photographs commissioned by the Government of India in the late 19th century. The Indian photographer Hurrichund Chintamon began one of the oldest photographic firms in Bombay (1858-81). He made a notable contribution to the book, 'The People of India'. Indian Museum, London, 1868-75.

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Studio portrait of an Parsee woman and child, Bombay

Studio portrait of a woman standing and a child seated on European style chair taken at Mumbai, India. This photograph is from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections and was exhibited in the 1867 Paris Exhibition. This image was probably by William Johnson despite the crediting of the image to Hurrichund Chintamon. The Parsees, or Parsis, are descendants of Persians who fled to India in the seventh and eighth centuries to escape Muslim persecution. Their communities are concentrated in Maharashtra and Gujarat states, especially in Bombay. The Parsis are Zorastrian, often described as fire-worshippers. However, they do not worship fire, instead they revere many aspects of nature as manifestations of the divinity of Ahura Mazdah.

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Sari weaving, Western India

Photograph of sari weaving at Maharashtra in Western India, taken by Shivashankar Narayan in c. 1873, from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections. This image, is probably one of the series of views showing the processes of the manufacture of cotton fabrics shown at the Vienna Exhibition of 1873. The weaver sits on the verandah of a house with his legs in a type of hole which contains the lower portion of the machinery which he works with a pedal at his feet. The combs are supported by ropes attached to beams in the roof. In his right hand the weaver holds the shuttle, which contains the thread which passes through the spaces created by the combs, forming the pattern. The principal comb is held in the left hand.

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Interior view of the Free Church of Scotland Mission School, Nagpur

Photograph of the interior of the Free Church of Scotland Mission School at Nagpur in Maharashtra from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections: India Office Series (Volume 46), taken by an unknown photographer in c. 1870. Alexander Duff, the first Free Church of Scotland missionary appointed to India, arrived in the country in 1830. Mission schools were important in India, particularly for the education of girls and women, and for those who were at the lower end of the caste system. The Imperial Gazetteer of India states, "Much assistance has been given to the cause of female education by mission schools and mission classes for home teaching. The promotion of education among children of the lowest castes, both male and female, is a matter of peculiar difficulty...[quoting Baines 'Report on Material and Moral Progress of India' (1891)] 'Special schools are therefore maintained where the excluded classes are of numerical importance and a great deal has been done in this way by Christian missionaries, who, especially in Madras, have made a special point of raising the status of what are conventionally, though, incorrectly, termed the outcast population.'...[regarding industrial schools] A few of the most important are managed by Government, some have been established by missionary societies or private benefactors. Many of the mission and private schools are aided by grants from public funds awarded on the results of industrial tests."

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Group of staff and inmates of the Free Church of Scotland Mission Orphanage, Nagpur

Photograph of a group of staff and inmates of the Free Church of Scotland Mission Orphanage at Nagpur in Maharashtra from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections: India Office Series (Volume 46), taken by an unknown photographer in c. 1870. Many schools and orphanages were set up by missionaries during the nineteenth century. Alexander Duff, the first Free Church of Scotland missionary appointed to India, arrived in Calcutta in 1830 and helped to promote the demand for an English education. Mission schools were important in India, particularly for the education of girls and women, for those who were at the lower end of the caste system and for technical education.

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Maratha barber Ancient photo

Photograph of a Maratha barber at work in India, taken by an unknown photographer in c. 1873, from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections. This image was probably shown at the Vienna Universal Exhibition of the same year. The Marathas originate in Maharashtra and are mostly from the peasant class, although some are Kshatriyas(Warriors).

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Portrait of the Nimbalkar of Satara (a Maratha), at Bombay Ancient photo

Studio portrait of the Nimbalkar of Satara (a Maratha), taken at Mumbai by Hurrichund Chintamon c. 1867, from the Archaeological Survey of India Collections. This photograph was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1867. A Maratha was a member of the princely and military class of the former Hindu kingdom of Maharashtra in central India (now the modern state of Maharashtra). Hurrichund Chintamon began one of the first photographic firms in Bombay. He also made a notable contribution to 'The People of India' (published in eight volumes between 1868 and 1875 by the India Museum, London), a compilation of photographs on the tribes, races and castes of India, commissioned by the Government of India.

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